Taken From http://www.elesoft.com/band/tree/doc/scot/scotchirish.htm

During the 1700s many Scotch-Irish and German immigrants arrived in America. They and their children settled parts of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Today, most of their descendants never think about their heritage. Most live in the present, are working on real-life problems, or planning their future. That attitude was shared by their ancestor immigrants 250 years ago. Nonetheless, I suspect most descendants have at least wondered what the word Scotch-Irish means. All my life, I have heard various facts, but never understood how they fit together. Some facts appeared contradictory. So, I investigated, and discovered a colorful story that far exceeded my expectations.

My principal objectives were to:

• Understand certain comments made by my grandparents and other relatives over 40 years ago.
• Understand the confusing adjective Scotch-Irish.
• Understand the confusing cultural icons of bagpipes, kilts, Celtic whistles, etc.
• Understand the history of Moravian, Lutheran, Mennonite, Amish, Dunkards, Presbyterian, Puritanism, Huguenot, Quaker, Methodist, Congregational, and Baptist denominations that have churches in the Carolinas.
• Understand why and when surnames became common.
• Understand ancestor Margaret Moore’s recollections of the Siege of Londonderry in 1689.
• Understand motivations of Scotch-Irish and German immigrants during the 1700s and terms of their Carolina land grants.
• Understand relations between early Carolina immigrants and Native Americans.
• Understand why Scotland’s heroine Flora Macdonald came to live in North Carolina in 1774.
• Understand Scotch-Irish legacy in Charlotte and Mecklenburg County, North Carolina.
• Understand the controversial Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence.
• Understand the decisive role Scotch-Irish and Germans settlers played during the American Revolution 1775–1781.
• Understand the sequence of events during 1780–1781 when the American Revolution reached the Carolina Piedmont. It was a civil war between rebel and loyalist neighbors that directly impacted many family members. At least 22 were veterans. For some reason, their story is virtually forgotten. But because war is better documented than ordinary home and farm life, much is recoverable. While a high-school student and cadet at the Citadel, I prepared reports and gave presentations on battles at Moore’s Creek, Charlestown siege, and Cowpens. Only recently, I learned details about relatives who participated or were affected by these battles.
• Understand the limits of genealogy. Why do all family-tree branches end in obscurity?

I presume a contemporary American reader who, like myself, is only vaguely familiar with Scotland’s history. I relate history to familiar movie films. Also, I show how one can estimate the number of his ancestors and descendants. Mentioned family relationships are those of the author. That allows a family-member reader to quickly calculate his or her own relationship.

I wrote this document as a tool to understand the above listed objectives and to collect and organize important or interesting facts. Chronological order is followed closely. Newly added information has made the document rather long. Consequently, I have attempted to make each section self-explanatory by redefining terms and re-identifying individuals. The reader should be able to read only those sections he or she regards as interesting. Of course, this document could be separated into multiple documents, but its present form seems best for inserting and organizing new information.

Since only important and interesting facts are included, content is somewhat anecdotal. It is not comprehensive history. Nonetheless, I am serious that it accurately represents history. Legends are explicitly identified. References were carefully selected. Some references are first-hand accounts of actual participants. Modern references reflect decades of research by professional historians. References appear as inline notes, rather than footnotes. An inline note has the form (Author year-written:volume:page), and thus immediately identifies author and year written. All references are listed in a bibliography. Place names and a military officer’s rank are specified contemporaneous with the event described. For example, Charlestown was the contemporaneous name of present-day Charleston. Although I have been careful, there may be errors. Please advise me wherever an interpretation can be improved. Ultimately, I hope this document encourages younger family members to extend the information in their own way.

The word Scotch-Irish is confusing. It is an American word that probably would not be understood in Scotland or Ireland. It is both correct and misleading. It is correct when understood in the historical context of settlers first leaving Lowland Scotland for Ulster, in northern Ireland during the 1600s, and then younger generations emigrating to North America during the 1700s. In the 1800s, the hyphenated name Scotch-Irish did not mean an ethnic mix. It meant Scots from northern Ireland. It was used to distinguish from Irishmen. The Scotch-Irish were mostly Presbyterian Protestants while the Irishmen were mostly Roman Catholic.

Many readers will be satisfied in understanding the above distinction. But the name Scotch-Irish is even more ironic if considered over the last 2000 years. That is because Scots first lived in Ireland and migrated to what is now called Scotland. They were pagans with no written language, painted their bodies, and were regarded as barbarians by Romans and other civilized societies. Ironically, after 1000 years, the Scots’ name was applied to a Pict-Scot-Angle-Saxon-Norman-Viking-Irish ethnically mixed society with a political system modeled after England, yet fiercely independent.

Today, cultural icons are often confused. The kilt is traditional Celtic clothing. It belongs to Highland Scots. The bagpipe is an ancient instrument. Romans spread its use. Americans are most familiar with the Scottish bagpipe. The Irish bagpipe has a bellows that is pressed using the arm. Most Scotch-Irish American heritage started in Lowland Scotland where dress fashion was similar to England and the fiddle (violin) was the principal folk instrument.

This confusion over Scotch-Irish has some benefits. A Scotch-Irish American can pick and choose whatever he or she likes from Scottish and Irish heritage without contradiction. Also, ignorance spares the United States from strife similar to present-day Northern Ireland. Understanding the name Scotch-Irish requires investigating a long history.

Pharaoh’s Daughter Scotta (400BC)

A superficial sentiment in genealogy is finding some notable ancestor, either royalty or in the extreme case, a son of Noah. Scots living about 400 BC had such a sentiment. They claimed to be descendants of Egyptian Pharaoh’s daughter Scotta and Greek prince Gael. They took Scotta’s name and migrated from the Mediterranean, via present-day Spain, to Ireland, carrying with them the Stone of Destiny. This legend probably made them feel important and part of a larger civilized world that they knew about but had never seen. It is mythology and not history. Nonetheless, it invites the curious question of its probability. The surprising fact is that every Scot of 400 BC was probably a descendant of every pharaoh’s daughter who had children since 5000 BC. And so was everyone else alive in 400 BC.

Mathematics helps explain this, and consequently, the limits of genealogical inferences. Everyone has 2 parents, 4 grandparents, 8 great-grandparents, and so on. This relationship is called an exponential function given by the formula n = 2^g, where g is the number of generations and n is the number of great … grandparents. For example, each of us had 1024 great … grandparents 10 generations older. For a newborn today, that would be approximately the year 1750. A few ancestors might be counted more than once if distant cousins married and had children. In such a case, the number of distinct 10^th-generation grandparents would be somewhat less than 1024.

The number of descendants is even more dramatic since parents can have more than 2 children. For example, Mary Louise McGuire (b:1895, d:1988) had 4 children, 11 grand children, and 19 great-grandchildren with more expected. The formula for this is approximately, n = 3^g. At this rate, she will have over 2 million living descendants in year 2250. That is the sum of the 11^th, 12^th, and 13^th generations. It assumes an average generation length of 25 years. The g = 0 generation completed in 1925. The g = 1 generation completed in 1950, and so on. Again, since distant cousins may have offspring, some descendants may be counted more than once. Nonetheless, it is clear that her genetic legacy will be dispersed rather quickly throughout the population. Interestingly, such dispersion does not necessarily lead to uniformity of all human characteristics. Due to what geneticists call genetic drift, group characteristics can persist. Such analysis has helped anthropologist time human immigration from Asia to North America.

Well, if mathematics assures that nearly everyone alive in 400 BC was a descendant of Pharaoh’s daughter, why did no legitimate pedigree exist? Even though a significant minority of every generation die young or have no children, one would expect privileged kings and queens to have many descendants. Also, they were more likely to marry across nationalities to achieve political alliances. Surely most people have royalty in their background, but it is difficult to discover because genealogy records are not complete. Illiteracy may be a principal reason. After all, a person who cannot write his own name is not likely to record much about his ancestors. Also, family fortune is rarely transferable beyond a few generations even for the richest, especially during times of political or economic instability. Young individuals selectively remember fortunate ancestors and dismiss others. Also, in modern times, record keeping is biased toward male ancestors for surname continuity. So, virtually every family-tree branch ends obscurity. It is almost hopeless for a Scotch-Irish American to find a royal ancestor since most Scotch-Irish immigrants were poor common folk. So poor that it probably never occurred to them that someday their descendants might want to know more about their lives. They preserved few records.

Anyone who has tried to maintain an accurate family tree realizes the futility of making it complete beyond about 8 generations. The author maintains a family tree database that includes only a few ancestors alive during the 1600s although there were actually thousands. Some ancient societies, like the Scots, took their genealogies seriously. The Bible records many ancient Hebrew genealogies. For example, 1 Chronicles 1–4 and Matthew 1. Saint Paul, a well-educated person, seemed to understand the fallacy without analysis. In 1 Timothy 1:4, he writes, "Neither give heed to fables and endless genealogies." In Titus 3:9, he writes, "Avoid foolish questions, and genealogies, and contentions, and strivings about the law; for they are unprofitable and vain."

Whatever the limits of genealogies, culture remains remarkably persistent over many human generations. The Old Testament describes the slow cultural transition from cult-based religions to more sophisticated laws and religious beliefs. The Hebrew cultural fight against pagan idol worship took 2000 years to prevail. Even good human behavior becomes persistent after integration into the culture. Today, there is much in American political and social culture that reflects the outlook of Scotch-Irish who emigrated from Ulster during the 1700s.

From 80 AD until 1746, Scotland had the misfortune of being on the border of contending super-powers. Like present-day Balkans, its wars were frequent and bloody. Scotland has contented with Romans, Britons, Saxons, Vikings, Normans, always the English, and internal conflicts between Highlanders and Lowlanders. Throughout these conflicts, Scotland has always maintained separate a identity.

When Romans occupied southern Britannia, their word for present-day Scotland was Caledonia. It was controlled by the Picts, so called by Romans because of their painted bodies. Picts had a culture much like the Celtic tribe Scots who at that time lived in Hibernia, the island now called Ireland. The Romans almost conquered the Picts, and if they had, Scotland may have never evolved. Romans built two defensive walls and a system of forts to stop Pict raids and to tax commerce through gates. Hadrian’s Wall was completed in year 122. It was 15 to 20 feet high and 80 miles long, coast to coast. The Pict problem was serious enough in 208 to require the personal attention of Roman Emperor Severus who after 3 years of directing inconclusive fighting died of exhaustion at Eboracum, present-day York.

The Romans began withdrawing their military from Britannia about year 400 when the weakening Western Empire began to implode. The vacuum induced Picts to raid fellow Celtic Britons whose wealth accumulated during Roman rule. Britons enlisted mercenary Angles and Saxons from mainland Europe to help them fight off the Picts.

In 430, Saint Patrick, a Roman missionary, christianized Hibernia. By legend, he banished all serpents. About the same time, missionary Saint Ninian christianized the Picts.

Meanwhile, Angle-Saxon mercenaries decided to stay. They drove their hosts westward into Strathclyde and Wales and became the new super power called Northumbria. This conflict produced the legend of King Arthur and his Knights of the Roundtable, although the famous romantic stories were written 1000 years later by Thomas Malory in Morte Darthur and again by Alfred Tennyson in Idyll. Angle-Saxons were Christianized in 597 under King Ethelbert by Saint Augustine—not the same saint who wrote Confessions. Like the Romans, the Angle-Saxons also tried to conquer the Picts. But a blunder in 685 got their army trapped in a marsh called Nectansmere where Picts destroyed them. This battle allowed Celtic culture to continue until today. In continental Europe, it had been obliterated, beginning with Julius Caesar’s Gaul conquest in 52 BC.

The culture of Ireland was Celtic. Religion was primitive pagan, essentially nature worship. Celts had gods for trees, streams, hills, and everything natural. They had a complex oral tradition that required a young person many years to master. The most successful students achieved priest-class called druid or bard. From this tradition, we have inherited leprechauns, wizards, mistletoe, hidden treasure, and wishing wells (Mebane 1999:13).

Between 400 and 700, Celtic clans formed a loose defensive alliance. An ancient settlement on a particular hill near present-day Dublin was a gathering place for political and religious ceremonies. It was called Tara. This name became part of Americana with Margaret Mitchell’s Gone With The Wind.

In 503, the Scottish Dalriada Kingdom extended its domain from the northeastern corner of Hibernia to western islands and coast of Caledonia which is geographically isolated from Pictland to the east. About 560, missionary Saint Columba arrived to serve Scots and Picts. Eventually, Scots would absorb all of Caledonia and assign its modern name Scotland.

In 843, Scottish king Kenneth MacAlpin claimed title to king of the Picts. This was successful even though Picts were far more populous, controlled more land, were more advanced in trade, and were English bilingual in the Lowlands. Modern historians believe Picts accepted peaceful assimilation since they viewed themselves as a Celtic extension, they shared Saint Columba’s Christian tradition, and since they had the unusual rule of female-line succession of kings which Kenneth MacAlpin satisfied through his mother. Because Picts were more numerous than Scots, it reasonable to assume that most latter day Scots have Pict ancestors. Details are in (Cummins 1995).

McAlpin Creek is a principal creek in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. Its name origin is lost in obscurity. The most likely origin is a farm family that moved away during the mid 1700s. But direct or indirectly, King Kenneth MacAlpin may be the original source.

An intriguing legend from this era describes how Saint Andrew’s bones came to Scotland. Saint Andrew was Christ’s second disciple and bother of Saint Peter. He was a missionary to the Black Sea area. He was crucified on a cross lying on it side forming an X. In 330, Roman Emperor Constantine moved relic bones of many saints, including Saint Andrew, to his new city Constantinople. A legend is that some of Saint Andrew’s bones were carried on a ship under the care of a man named Regulus. The ship wrecked off Scotland’s coast. Regulus was able to carry the bones ashore. Saint Andrew became patron saint of Scotland, eclipsing Saint Columba’s cultural traditions. In another legend, a Scottish commander saw a white X in a blue sky before a battle victory. That image is now the flag of Scotland, called the Saltire. Interestingly, Saint Andrew’s X-shaped cross is on the flag of Charlotte, North Carolina.

The Saltire

Another interesting fact about Roman Emperor Constantine is the phase "of the same substance" that he contribution to the Nicene Creed, which is often recited during Christian church services. In 319, Constantine made Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire. At that time, Christianity had many factions, each centered at a principal city: Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, Caesarea, and Nicaea. The Alexandria bishop Arius promulgated Arianism ideology that denied Christ’s divinity. Approximately, half of all Christians held this belief. These factions caused a serious political problem for Constantine who wanted the new state religion to be a unifying force. In 325, to establish a written uniform Christain doctrine, he called all Christian bishops to a council at Nicaea. Beforehand, the only agreed doctrine was the Apostle’s Creed, which was a compilation of baptismal sayings and it not actually attributed to any of Christ’s apostles. At Nicaea, Constantine intervened to forced a compromise with Arianism bishops by agreeing that Christ and God were different but were "of the same substance." Another curious expression in both Apostle’s Creed and Nicene Creed is "He descended into Hell, and on the third day arose again." That refers to Christ going to Hell after his death and escorting meritorious sinners, including Adam and Eve, to heaven. Even more curious, is that it is not mentioned in the Bible, but in the Gospel of Nicodemus, a non-canonical gospel popular during years 300–400. Incidentally, Arianism is named after Bishop Arius and should not be confused with completely unrelated Aryanism.

Beginning in 795, pagan Vikings raided wealthy Christian monasteries and abbeys in Scotland and Ireland. Their longboat invention gave them access to inland areas along rivers. They settled in Orkney, Shetland, Outer Hebrides, and other islands, plus the northernmost parts of Scotland, present-day Caithness and Sutherland. They explored and settled along Russian rivers, Iceland, Greenland, and North America. Viking settlers in northwestern France established a separate identity as French-speaking Normans. How did Vikings achieve this without more sophisticated political or social structures or other advantages? It may have been terrorism on a grand scale. Their boastful and frenzied violence gave us the adjective berserk. Most remarkable is their victims’ ineffective response. That is evidence of the profound weakness of medieval monarchies. The feudal correction came two centuries later, but by then Vikings were assimilated throughout Europe’s population.

Powerful Viking lords had threatening names: Harold Fair Hair, Kentil Flatnose, Godfrey Crovan, Sigurd the Mighty, Maelbrigte Tooth, Brian Boru, Thorfinn the Mighty, Somerled, and Haakon.

In 1066, Normans conquered England and established feudalism, a political system that could muster a large army. Normans weakened England’s traditional ties to Saxony and Norway and strengthened ties with France. Scotland had to adopt feudalism to survive against feudal England. King David I started feudalism by dispossessing landholders and replacing them with imported Angle-Saxon-Norman lords in exchange for absolute loyalty.

Feudal governments throughout Europe made laws requiring individuals to take on surnames to better account for taxes and required military service. In 1053, Scotland’s King Malcolm Canmore decreed that each landowner use his property name as a surname. Gradually, this practice applied to everyone. Some people chose a surname describing where he lived, like Brook. Others chose a surname that described his profession, like Taylor, Cooper (barrel maker), Sawyer, Turner (lathe worker), and Smith (hammerer). A popular choice was a variation of Son of …. Often the meaning was not meant literally, but implied Servant of Saint …. For example, Anderson could mean Servant of Saint Andrew. This development occurred after the Viking era. So, similar surnames like Scottish Anderson and Scandinavian Andersen developed independently, but concurrently. Until about 1500, an individual could select any surname. That contributed to wide use of Son of …, since it associated child’s legal liabilities with his father. Later, laws made a surname hereditary. These laws did not apply to monarchs. So even today, kings, queens, and the Pope do not have surnames.

The Celtic form of Son of … is prefix Mac or Mc. The former was more common in Scotland and the latter in Ireland. But they mean the same thing. Less common prefixes were Ma as in Makemie and Me as in Mebane, equivalent of McBane. Reference (Mebane 1999:1) contains Mebane name details.

The genealogical implication is that it is almost impossible to trace a surname before year 1500.

During the feudal period 1066–1500, Scotland had a long succession of kings, regents, and heroes. Notables are: MacBeth, Malcolm Canmore, David I, William the Lion, Alexander III, William Wallace, Robert the Bruce, and Robert Stewart. King William the Lion drove out Viking lords.

King William’s Red Lion Rampart

In 1263, Alexander III defeated Norse King Haakon’s fleet of 200 ships and 15,000 soldiers by stalling negotiations until the stormy season decimated Norse ships. Haakon withdrew and soon died, ending 400 years of strong Norse influence (Mackie 1978:44). A legend from this time made the thistle a national icon. An attacking Norse soldier stepped on a thistle at night and his ouch cry alerted a Scottish sentry spoiling the surprise attack.

Thistle
from clip art

In 1296, English King Edward I, nicknamed Longshanks, successfully attacked Scotland. Among his trophies was the Stone of Destiny. Events during this time are portrayed in the 1995 movie Braveheart. Its hero is William Wallace who was betrayal by Robert the Bruce. In the 1320 Declaration of Arbroath addressed to the Pope, the Scots warned, "As long as but a hundred of us remain alive, never will we on any conditions be brought under English rule. It is in truth not for glory, nor riches, nor honors that we are fighting, but for freedom—for that alone, which no honest man gives up but with life itself." This document partly inspired the United States’ Declaration of Independence. Gradually, Lowland nobility became English-speaking Anglo-Saxon-Norman-Scot while Highland leaders remained Gaelic-speaking Celtic clan chiefs. The Stone of Destiny was not returned to Scotland until 1996.

In Ireland, feudal developments paralleled that of Scotland. Norman influence gradually predominated. One notable difference is that the English monarch remained sovereign over Ireland.

Throughout Europe, the general political trend was ever increasing absolute kings who gained authority to appoint bishops and thus a source of revenue that allowed kings to operate unchecked by a parliament. The Pope’s corresponding loss of revenue led to corrupt polices like selling indulgences. Church corruption led to the Reformation.

Much more could be written about Scotland’s feudal kings. However, to understand Scotch-Irish immigration in the 1700s, the important fact is that Scotland remained an independent country with a Lowland population much like the people in England.

Roman Catholic Church reform was first advocated in the 1370s by Oxford professor John Wyclif whose followers were called Lollards. Wyclif believed: (1) The Church should not own property, (2) An individual can relate to God without the Church, and (3) The number and importance of sacraments should be reduced. In the 1450s, professor-priest Jan Hus linked these ideas with secular interests of Bohemian princes. On 31 October 1517, priest Martin Luther posted his famous 95 theses, or debating points, on a church door in Wittenberg, Germany. In addition to Wyclif’s reforms, Luther believed: (4) Doctrine of justification by faith that did not necessarily require good works, and (5) Eucharist consubstantiation instead of Catholic transubstantiation. Like Hus, he believed that the state has authority over the church. Opportunist princes immediately realized they could stop flow of funds to Rome and confiscate Church property. Within 10 years a major political realignment occurred. Northern and western Germany became independent of Rome and was called Palatinate (pronounced pa-latin-ate). The word Protestant was applied first to a group of Palatinate princes making a legal complaint. Luther authored hymn A Mighty Fortress Is Our God, based on Psalm 46. In 1524, Ulrich Zwingli started the Reformed Church in Zurich. His beliefs were similar to Luther’s except he believed the Eucharist was a symbolic ritual, rejecting both consubstantiation and transubstantiation. In 1530, John Calvin in Geneva published a new theology. The leading principle was God’s omnipotence implies God knows the future, and thus the predestined salvation of everyone. Churches that did not accept predestination were called, confusingly, Armenian. Unlike Luther, Calvin believed in theocracy, the church has authority over the state.

Beginning in 1559, John Knox attempted to reform Scotland’s state-supported Church called Kirk, a Norse word for church. That church owned half Scotland’s wealth. Knox was influenced by John Calvin’s philosophy. The backlash of the established church was unbelievably brutal. Some of Knox’s associates were burned at the stake on church grounds in the presence of notorious Cardinal Beaton. In reaction, Protestants ransacked churches. In an act of desecration, the ancient bones of Saint Andrew were lost. Religious emotionalism was extreme on both sides.

John Knox
Engraving from Icones by T. Beza, 1580

In 1560, the English-language Geneva Bible was published. An unintended consequence was that, for the first time, literate people could understand authentic Christian teachings instead of relying on priests.

The simple outline of religious beliefs above is inadequate for most purposes. For example, consubstantiation is not defined. This document attempts only to place development of denominations into a history timeline. Each denomination is inserted at its approximate founding date along with its distinctive beliefs and characteristics. Such reduction risks triviality. No doubt, the reader knows that religion is a complicated subject, best described in books with extensive commentary.

The church formed by Jan Hus in the 1400s called itself Unity of the Brethren. It began as a reform oriented church in Moravia, a region now within the Czech Republic. Its members were forced from their homes immediately after the Thirty Years’ War 1618–1648. When some members settled in Germany, they became known as Moravians. Somewhat confusingly, then and now, a Moravian church member can be from anywhere.

In the 1500s, several Anabaptists movements began. They believed a person must be baptized only after he or she is old enough to understand its meaning. They rejected Luther’s justification by faith. They believed in complete separation between church and state. These included Mennonites who are named for leader Menno Simons. Some Mennonites from the Switzerland mountains followed leader Jacob Amman to become Amish. They meet in homes rather than churches. Other Anabaptists were quite austere. They removed all religious art, sang hymns without accompanying music, and did not celebrate Christmas since the Bible does not explicitly justify it. Present-day Baptist roots are Anabaptist. However, there is wide diversity among Baptists. Their theology is still in ferment as they debate Calvinist principles like predestination.

Calvinism induced several denominations. In England, Puritanism adopted the doctrine of Company of Saints. In France, followers of Swiss Besancon Hugues, formed the Huguenot Church. In Saint Bartholemew’s Day Massacre, 24 August 1572, Catholics massacred over 10,000 Huguenots. Civil war continued until King Henry IV issued the 1598 Edict of Nantes that tolerated two religions in France.

In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII instituted a more precise calendar. It revised the standard 1600-year-old Julian calendar by removing leap-year day from each century year not divisible by 400. To correct the accumulated 10-day error, Thursday 4 October 1582 was followed immediately by Friday 15 October 1582. Protestant England refused to adopt the new calendar because it was labeled an invention of the Pope. On the other hand, Scotland adopted the new calendar in 1600 to be consistent with its trading partners, especially France. For the next 152 years, calendars of Scotland and England with its colonies differed by 10 days prior to 1 March 1700 and 11 days prior to 14 September 1752. In a family tree database, birthdays and death dates in English colonies prior to 14 September 1752 are obsolete Julian Calendar dates. So, for example, on the day George Washington was born, the calendar read 11 February. Later, that day was converted to 22 February, the official commemoration date. In addition, in 1752, New Year’s Day was moved from 25 March to 1 January. That is why days between 1 January and 25 March in prior years are written with hyphenated years. For example, today, when we want to write George Washington’s Julian calendar birthday, it is best written 11 February 1731–1732.

Beginning in pre-history antiquity, the full-moon cycle was the obvious time period longer than a day. This cycle divided into four equal parts became the seven-day week and was associated with the moon’s four quarters: new, first-quarter, full, and last-quarter. Interestingly, in Western cultures, the weekday phase has not shifted for at least 3000 years, approximately 150,000 cycles. Weekday names have an astronomical origin: sun, moon, and five known planets. Present-day English names are derived from German names.

A long-term English goal was to assimilate unruly Scottish Highlanders and Irishmen. During the 1570s, Queen Elizabeth I injected English colonists into Ireland from occupied Dublin and surroundings known as the Pale. The expression "beyond the Pale" indicated uncivilized territory. Queen Elizabeth I was the first to use the word Scotch-Irish. It appeared in a formal document referring to Scottish settlers in and around Dublin. The present-day word Scotch-Irish, although similar in meaning, originated in America during the 1800s.

Queen Elizabeth I
Attributed to Isaac Oliver.

Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, leaving no heirs. Scotland’s King James VI became King James I of England. His hereditary claim was that his 2^nd great-grandfather had been former English King Henry VII. He got the crown by creating political alliances during Elizabeth’s reign. Stakes of these alliances were so high that he acquiesced to his mother’s, Mary Queen of Scots, execution in 1587. A new flag was designed and called Union Jack after James’ official Latin name Jacobus Rex. It contains the white X-shaped Cross of Saint Andrew superimposed on the red cross of Saint George, that symbolized England.

      
Union Jack
Original and modern design.

In 1604, King, James commissioned scholars to translate the Bible into English. It was published in 1611 as King James’ Version. James was also a proponent of colonization. Jamestown Colony in Virginia began in 1607.

King James I
Attributed to John de Critz the Elder.

In 1610, Irish landowners abandoned Ulster under pressure. King James set up Ulster Plantation and invited residents of Scotland and England to settle providing they cultivate land and provide as many jobs as possible exclusively to Scots or Englishmen. Since King James was originally Scotland’s king, Scots probably got better allotments than they would have otherwise. Most Scot colonists were from western Lowlands and did not have far to go since Ulster and Scotland are only 20 miles apart at their closest points. Scots succeeded in making Ulster farmland productive. Their descendants are still there today. Obviously, native Irishmen resented this.

The word Presbyterian implies church governance not by bishops but by church leaders in a hierarchical structure of Session, Presbytery, Synod, and General Assembly. Leaders are both lay and clergy. To provide trained ministers, Presbyterians established many independent colleges.

In the minds of most Europeans during 1600s, religious toleration was not a virtue. Instead, they believed that each nation must share a common religion and celebrate religious events simultaneously. Consequently, on 28 February 1638, Covenanters tried to reverse state, or established, religion by making Presbyterianism the only religion in England, Scotland, and Ireland. Its beliefs and policies were codified by Westminster Assembly in 1643. The "trespasses" version of the Presbyterian Lord’s Prayer is an incidental consequence of the Westminster Assembly. In the King James’ Bible, Matthew 6:9–13 uses "debts" and Luke 11:2–4 uses "sins."

During the remainder of the 1640s, other factions took advantage of royal weakness. A three-sided civil war resulted. First, the Scotland Army invaded northern England. To raise funds, Charles I was forced to reconvene what became known as Long Parliament. It attempted to destroy Charles I’s government. The English Army split between royalist supporters known as Cavaliers and Parliament supporters known as Roundheads. In 1641, Irish Catholic majority revolted against all Protestants overlords. In 1648, the Army under Oliver Cromwell took virtual custody of King Charles and banished him to Isle of Man. Some Covenanters attempted to deal with the weakened king to realize their goal of universal Presbyterianism. But other armed Covenanters, 6000 strong, marched on Edinburgh in what became known as Whiggamore’s Raid. That unusual word is a loose variation of "whig a mare" meaning prod a horse. The participants, and later all Presbyterian fighters, became known by the nickname Whig. In 1649, they made an alliance with Cromwell that decisively ended the monarchy and put Cromwell in power. On 30 January 1649, Charles I was beheaded. But soon afterwards, the Covenanters felt doublecrossed, because Cromwell failed to make Presbyterianism the established church. In 1649–1650, Cromwell’s Army brutally repressed Irish Catholics. In 1653, Cromwell was named Lord Protector. Presbyterians were generally happy when Charles II restored the monarchy on 29 May 1660. But soon thereafter, they felt doublecrossed when instead of advancing Presbyterianism as he had promised in 1649, he contemptuously said "Presbytery was not a religion for gentlemen," and began to reestablish bishops and formal liturgy, such as kneeling. Such issues mattered deeply to Presbyterians who again decided to fight. Many Presbyterians lost their jobs, property, and lives for their beliefs. Fighting lasted for decades. The 1680s were the worst period. In the end, they failed to establish universal Presbyterianism, but did maintained a separate existence. Fighting radicalized leaders, resulting in dogmatic and austere policies. For example, in 1696 a student was hanged for using profanity. His sadly ironic name was Thomas Aikenhead (Mackie 1978:253). The degree of religious passions and violence during the 1600s had searing impacts on individuals. It shaped the Presbyterian image as dour, independent, self-reliant, defensive, anti-government, and militant.

A few generations later, when opportunity opened in America, Ulster Scots were already predisposed to settle elsewhere. During 1683–1708, Francis Makemie founded America’s first Presbyterian churches on Virginia-Maryland Eastern Shore.

Francis Makemie
Makemie Presbyterian Church, Accomac, Virginia
Copy of statue by Alexander Stirling Calder, 1897
Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA

In France, the 1598 Edict of Nantes had been divisive. After 1650, systematic persecutions of Huguenots increased and many left France for Geneva, Amsterdam, London, Brandenburg-Prussia, and Ulster. In Ulster, Huguenots integrated well with Presbyterian Scots. Beginning 1669, Huguenots immigrated to Charlestown, (South) Carolina. More settled west of present-day Richmond, Virginia. In October 1685, French King Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, forcing all remaining Huguenots to convert or depart.

In 1685, new King James II was Roman Catholic. Soon he began replacing all Protestant office holders with Catholics. Also, his newborn son was expected to become another Catholic monarch. King James was so unpopular that Parliament invited his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange to create an army in Holland and invaded England. King James tried to escape, was caught, then freed to "escape" again. This so-called Bloodless Revolution marked the end of English absolute monarchs and the beginning of Parliament preeminence. The winning political party became known as Whigs, although its support was more diverse than the original Covenanters.

In 1688–1690, James, with French and Irish Catholic soldiers, attempted to regain the crown by attacking Ulster from southern Ireland where the population was mostly Catholic. Londonderry was surrounded. Although city officials advised surrender, residents refused. For fifteen weeks between March and July 1689, city supplies were cut off and many people starved. Finally, a relief ship broke the harbor blockade. King William ultimately defeated James at River Boyne Battle on 1 July 1690.

There were always some Lowland Scotland leaders who believed closer ties to England were in Scotland’s long-term interest. Economic conditions in the early 1700s caused these views to prevail. Integration freed Scotland from England’s trade-restrictive Navigation Acts. Also, England got a more stable northern neighbor less influenced by France. In 1707, Scotland’s Parliament met to accept terms of union with England and then disbanded. Thereafter, Scotland sent its Members of Parliament to London and the new country called itself Great Britain. Scotland retained an independent church and legal system. Scotland would have preferred a federal form of government. This was achieved in July 1999. Today, Scotland Parliament’s powers are limited to regional issues. London continues control of foreign policy, defense, and central bank.

The 1690 defeat of James II led to Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland with its systematic subjugation of the majority Catholic population. Unlike today, Ireland was not partitioned. It had its own parliament until 1 January 1801, the date that corresponds to Scotland’s 1707 event. In the 1700s, various penal laws forbid Catholics from holding public office, owning land or firearms, and educating their children even outside Ireland. Although Ulster Presbyterians were not persecuted as severely, they were forced to pay tithes to the established Anglican Church. Between 1704 and 1719, the Irish Parliament Test Act Against Popery excluded all dissenters, including Presbyterians, from public office and military careers. It also made non-Anglican marriages technically illegal which threatened children’s future. Also, the previous 150 years taught Presbyterians that their liberty and property could disappear anytime government changed. Also English protectionist laws forbade importation of Irish wool and other products. This was the political, religious, and economic environment from which many Scotch-Irish emigrated to North America. But compared to other contemporary immigrants, Scotch-Irish were motivated to own large farms. (Leyburn 1962) contains details.

Authentic 1700s Ulster Farmhouse
Frontier Culture Museum, Staunton, Virginia

Typical 1700s Ulster Clothing
Linen manufactured from homegrown flax.
Frontier Culture Museum, Staunton, Virginia

Certainly most departing emigrants never expected to see older family members again, although they could correspond by mail. Ocean passage required tropical easterly trade winds and took from 6 to 10 weeks. This route was known as the Southern Crossing. Near Florida, ships turned north, aided by the Gulf Stream. Obviously, such passage was very expensive. Emigrants who could not afford the cost, indentured themselves as farm laborers for 4 to 7 years.

The Society of Friends, or Quaker, religion began in England in the 1640s. It appealed to Protestants who wanted a more emotional, informal, and engaging debate in their liturgy. Its leaders quickly wrote a complete doctrine that rejected formal sacraments, priesthood, and violence. Quaker William Penn’s father had been a British Navy admiral who was owed a large debt by the crown. In 1681, this debt was paid with the landholding call Pennsylvania. The new government set the liberal policy of welcoming all Protestant immigrants.

Beginning about 1720, most Scotch-Irish immigrants entered America through ports Philadelphia, Pennsylvania or New Castle, Delaware, and first settled in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. In addition, many Amish, Lutherans, Moravians, and Mennonites entered. Many German emigrants were refugees displaced by French King Louis XIV’s expansion into Rhineland. They journeyed down the Rhine River to Rotterdam, Holland where they boarded ships. This is one reason why they were called "Dutch." Another explanation is that Germans called themselves "Deutsch," a word distorted by their English-speaking neighbors. Likewise, Scotch-Irish from Ulster were often called "Irish Presbyterians" or simply "Irish." Some Scotch-Irish maintained sentimental attachment to Ireland by established non-religious St. Patrick societies. The imprecise word "Moravian" is described above. Confusion was compounded when these words became adjectives, as in "Dutchman’s Creek" and "Moravian band." Of course, only those of us in later generations are confused. The name "Alamance" is a reference to German settlers.

Authentic 1700s German Palatinate Farmhouse
Frontier Culture Museum, Staunton, Virginia

As new farmland was acquired and cleared, the Pennsylvania government paid Indians a fair price. Scotch-Irish newcomers were not generous and had poor relations with Indians. Indians retaliated during French and Indian War 1756–1763.

English currency was based on the pound sterling, each equal to 20 shillings, each equal to 12 pence, each equal to 4 farthings. Notation was £ pound.shilling.pence. A guinea was a pound and a shilling, and thus written £1.1.0. One pound in 1760 equals approximately US$20 in 2000.

On 24 March 1663, King Charles II subdivided land south of Virginia into 8 large landholdings for political cronies who helped restore him to the monarchy in 1660. In the order named in Charles’ charter they are: Earl of Clarendon, Duke of Albemarle, Lord Craven, Lord Berkeley, Lord Ashley, Sir George Carteret, Sir William Berkeley, and Sir John Colleton. Proprietor George Monch, or Lord Albemarle, was a few years earlier, the Army general that made Charles II restoration possible. Today, the Albemarle name applies to a coastal sound and a city. Other names continue in regional lexicon. These proprietorship grants appear as extravagant gifts, but they were actually charters for financial investors who hoped to profit from colonial development. Collectively, this region was called Carolina, a variation of older name Carolana that honored King Charles I who was beheaded fourteen years earlier during Oliver Cromwell’s rule. By claim, Carolina extended westward to the "South Seas," meaning Pacific Ocean, but England had no effective control beyond the Atlantic coast. In 1665, this area was extended northward 30 minutes of latitude to include Albemarle Sound, creating the approximate present-day North Carolina-Virginia boundary. The area was also extended southward to 29 degrees latitude into Spanish Florida near present-day St. Augustine. On 7 December 1710, two political units, North and South Carolina, were established, each with its own colonial governor.

Before bridges were common, coastlines, rivers, and creeks formed the reference system of all locations.

Dugout canoe made in 1700s.
Found in swamp near Camden, South Carolina.

Many Native American tribes inhabited Carolina which was on the frontier of Algonquian culture to the north and Siouan (or Mississippian) culture to the south and west. The latter is studied at Town Creek Indian Mound excavation site in Montgomery County, North Carolina.

Indians established a main trail through the Piedmont called Indian Trading Path. By running along the elevated ridgeline between watersheds it circumvented creeks that were impassable during flood. Of course, major rivers could only be crossed at fords when water level was low. A topological map reveals many old roads that avoid creek crossings. Today’s bridges allow shorter routes between towns.

Catawba Indians moved into the region in approximately 1650 after being driven out of their original home in present-day Ohio by other Indians. Their entire population was approximately 10,000. They managed to gain control of the river now known by their name, but only in a constant state of war with Cherokees who resided along and west of Broad River. In a battle at Nation’s Ford, more than 1000 braves died on each side. That ford is at the present-day railroad bridge northeast of Rock Hill, South Carolina. Actually, the name Catawba originally applied to a sub-tribe. About 1700, the name applied generally to an alliance of Esaw, Sugaree, Shuteree and Catawba sub-tribes. Their central community was at the confluence of Sugar Creek and Catawba River. (Merrell 1989:92) contains details. Waxhaw Indians inhabited land south of Twelve-Mile Creek. Their culture, called Cofitachique, had links to Indians in present-day Mexico (Merrell 1989:103). They flattened the skull of each infant child with strapped-on sandbags. The rationale was to spread the eyes to improve hunting skills.

Tribes often fought each other. After large numbers of European colonists overran coastal Virginia, Siouan tribes, Cheraw, Santee, Pee Dee, Waccamaw, and Catawba, aligned with colonists against Algonguian, or more specifically Iroquois, tribes, Tuscarora and Cherokee. On 22 September 1711, Tuscaroras in eastern North Carolina raided colonial villages including New Bern at the Neuse River mouth. That triggered the Tuscarora War. Colonial military leaders organized the Tuscarora’s traditional Indian enemies. The war ended in 1713 with a thousand Tuscaroras killed or sold into slavery. The remainder migrated to Iroquois country in present-day New York State. Virginian adventurers and criminals expropriated freed land. The war experience taught the Indian allies the value of organization and a clearer assessment of their common interest. In May 1715, a local problem with Yamasees in southern South Carolina erupted in a general Indian uprising that included Waxhaws and Catawbas. All marched on Charlestown, seriously threatening the South Carolina government until George Chicken, a colonial military leader with an unlikely name, and a band of colonists attacked undefended Indian villages behind the advancing warriors. The Indian advance collapsed. Catawbas wanted peace and blamed the Waxhaws for forcing their involvement. In August 1716, Catawbas destroyed the Waxhaw tribe. Surviors and other vanquished Indians migrated and merged into what became known as Catawba Nation. It was in present-day York County. Catawbas traded deerskins for manufactured goods, in particular, guns, gunpowder, tools, and textiles. Although Catawbas survived colonial settlers, they had strong Indian enemies. They were subjected to Iroquoian Shawnee raiders from as far away as the Ohio River. For these reasons, Catawbas allied themselves with settlers during the French and Indian War and American Revolution (Merrell 1989:161).

Lumbees have a distinctive history. Before modern transportation, their land, in present-day Robeson County, was isolated by swamps from other Indians and Europeans. Nonetheless, as early as 1730, they had an entirely European way of life that included English language, European-style houses, and farming methods. Their surnames included those of Lost Colonists who disappeared sometime between 1587 and 1590. Reference (Dial 1996) discusses this evidence. Lumbees have always been self-sufficient, never subject to federal government Indian-Affairs programs, and vigorously defended themselves against racial prejudice. Today, Lumbees are prominent near Pembroke, North Carolina.

The proprietorships were not as profitable as hoped. On 25 July 1729, all except one of the 8 proprietors sold their holdings back to the English government that then began promoting inland settlement. The price was £17,500. Proprietor John Carteret, or Lord Granville, kept his landholding that was north of latitude 35 degrees 34 minutes, which was approximately the northern half of North Carolina. Today, that boundary is evident as the northern edge of Moore, Montgomery, Stanly, Cabarrus, Mecklenburg, and Lincoln Counties with slight adjustments. Lord Granville hired private officers to sell land to new immigrants.

A 1734 agreement specified rules that would determine the North and South Carolina boundary. From the coast, the boundary started 30 miles south of the Cape Fear River mouth. It then ran along a straight line that could never be closer than 30 miles from the Cape Fear River. This boundary line was to stop at latitude 35 degrees. From there, it would continue westward except for undefined Catawba Indian lands that had to be in South Carolina. In 1759, surveyors believed they were to proceed due west from the last survey measurement at latitude 34 degrees 48 minutes, about 11 miles south of the intended border. After the boundary was set, it was too late to correct. In 1772, to compensate South Carolina, an equal area was taken from North Carolina west of Catawba River. In South Carolina, it was called New Acquisition District. That adjustment accounts for the stair-step state border and the southern boundary of York County, South Carolina. It was not well received in Mecklenburg, Tryon, and York Counties since it arbitrarily separated settlers with common heritage. (Robinson 1968) contains details.

Before 1763, France claimed the entire Mississippi River watershed. Its Fort Duquesne, present-day Pittsburgh, blocked English settlement west of Pennsylvania. Because of that, Indian conflicts, and rising Pennsylvania land prices, younger Scotch-Irish and Germans moved south. Beginning in 1730, Scotch-Irish and Germans settled Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley and then the Carolina Piedmont. They traveled along what was called Great Wagon Road. At that time, a wagon road meant a good road wide enough for a wagon and better than a typical unimproved trading path. A desirable wagon type, named Conestoga for the Pennsylvania town where it was manufactured, had a sunken floor for high capacity and stability. Moving occurred after autumn harvest and before spring planting.

Great Wagon Road
From Rowan County Information Web Site.

Beforehand, Indians used fire to maintain wide fields as habitat for buffalo, elk, and deer in Shenandoah Valley and Carolinas. Settlers assigned names like "Old Fields" and "Haw Fields." Already free of trees, these fields were quickly converted to farmland. Each settler family selected a home site near a spring or cheek. A typical first house was a log cabin of hewn logs chinked with mud. The front door faced south for maximum sunlight. It had at most one window.

Local governments were modeled on English county government. Freemen voted for justices of the peace among candidates selected by the colonial Assembly, or legislature. These justices of the peace selected one of themselves as sheriff subject to the Assembly’s approval. The sheriff was the county’s chief executive and had wide authority. His principal responsibility was to enforce justice of the peace rulings as warrant and summons officer with power to appoint armed deputies. He was also jailer, tax collector, elections supervisor, and militia leader. This collusion between Assemblymen and local officials led to oligarchy. Two-thirds of Assemblymen were also justices of the peace. The corrupting system was called "courthouse ring." (Robinson 1968) contains details.

County government licensed roadhouse inns, each called an "ordinary." Fixed prices for lodging, dinners, liquor, stablage and pasturage protected new immigrants from price gouging. But prices were high enough to make ownership very profitable. Guests, although strangers, might share the same room and bed.

In 1752, Moravian Bishop August Gottlieb Spangenberg explored the Piedmont for a suitable community site. Because this trip was commissioned, he wrote a detailed log. In 1753, Moravians purchased and settled a 100,000 acre estate that they called Wachovia after the Wach River near their earlier settlement in Germany. Villages were established, including Salem along a major tributary of Yadkin River. Moravians stressed community and cooperation. Their good deeds were highly respected by other immigrants.

The militia was a local defense system based on an English feudal tradition that began with the 1181 Assize of Arms. It required service of every able-bodied male age 16–60. Each man kept a musket, balls, and gunpowder. The local militia unit drilled a few times each year. During times of alarm, some militiamen drilled frequently and had a heightened state of readiness. They were called Minutemen. Typically, militiamen elected their officers, whose names were submitted to the Assembly and finally the Governor for commissions. Militia rank did not necessarily imply special military training or experience. A civic leader who could assemble militia soldiers or had special business skills was assigned rank. Militia leaders studied published British Army drill manuals. Reference (Wilbur 1993) illustrates life of a typical militiaman. He did not wear a uniform, but his own leather hunting coat over cotton or wool clothing that included a loose-fitting shirt, knee britches, leggings, and round hat with brim pinned on one side so as not to interfere with a shoulder-carried musket or rifle. In addition, he carried a cartridge box, leather or wood canteen, blanket, and haversack. The standard military weapon was the 9.5-pound Brown Bess musket. That nickname arose in the early 1700s when it replaced an older musket with stock painted black. However, many militia armories had fewer muskets than militiamen. So, a militiaman might use his hunting rifle. The American-made Deckard rifle was the best at that time. Its nickname was Kentucky long rifle. The typical militiaman ate corn meal, beans, and chicken, beef, or pork cooked on a skewer. American militiamen served during the French and Indian War 1756–1763, known as the Seven Years’ War by Europeans.

From Guilford Courthouse National Military Park Web Page

Although Catawba and other Piedmont Indian tribes were allied with colonists, their condition deteriorated, especially by smallpox. Epidemics in 1738 and 1759 reduced Catawba Indian population to less than 1000 with only 200 fighting braves. In 1759, to avoid smallpox at the Sugar Creek village, Catawba King Haigler established a new village where Twelve-Mile Creek joins the Catawba River (Merrell 1989:195). In 1760, he skillfully negotiated with both North and South Carolina colonial governments to legally establish the Catawba Nation boundary on a 15-mile square. Catawbas became landlords collecting rents from settlers. A fort was built at present-day Fort Mill, South Carolina for protection against other Indians and to free braves for soldier duty. By agreement, Catawba Nation was to remain entirely in South Carolina. A corner of this square is evident today in a right-angle notch along the state boundary immediately west of Pineville, North Carolina. After King Haigler was killed by Shawnee raiders in 1763, no effective Catawba leadership emerged. In 1840, all but 600 acres of the Nation were sold to the South Carolina government (Merrell 1989:249).

The Dunkards religious sect arose in Germany in 1708. They practiced triple total immersion baptism to imitate original Christians. They were pacifists to the extent that they rejected courts to settle disputes. Later, they merged with Moravians.

In the 1730s, Englishman John Wesley, influenced by Moravian beliefs and policies, appealed to middle-class workers alienated by Anglican Church formalities. During 1736–1737, he was rector of Christ Episcopal Church in Savannah, Georgia. There he instituted Sunday school and published the first hymnal in the colonies. In the 1790s, his followers formed the Methodist Church. Using similar methods, Jonathan Edwards formed the Congregationalist Church in America.

Christ Episcopal Church
Savannah, Georgia
John Wesley rector 1736–1737.

Similarly, during mid 1700s, the Presbyterian New Side movement appealed to rural less-educated churchgoers. New hymns not based on psalms were accepted. Even today, Presbyterian hymnbooks reflect this history. A large section contains psalm-based hymns that predate 1800.

Since 1663, Carolina colonial governments tolerated any religion since the primary objected was to encourage immigration. The earliest Scotch-Irish settlements in the Piedmont were too isolated to be influenced by the coastal established Anglican Church. Presbyterians built churches and actively sought trained preachers. As the Piedmont became better organized, the established church attempted to assert its authority. Marriages had to occur in an established church. In reaction, many Presbyterians signed anti-vestry petitions arguing that rules were too burdensome and illegitimatized existing churches.

In 1754, Arthur Dobbs, an Ulster politician, was appointed North Carolina colonial governor. He encouraged settlement by more Ulstermen. His residence and seat of government was Brunswick Town near the Cape Fear River mouth.

Original Saint Philip’s Anglican Church
Governor Arthur Dobbs’ burial site.
Brunswick Town, North Carolina

In 1690, King James II lost any chance of regaining the English crown. The main issue was that he was Roman Catholic. His claim was recognized by the Vatican, powerful France, and many British conservatives, including Highland Scots. His Protestant daughters Mary and Anne ruled after him. Although Queen Anne had seventeen children, none survived her. In 1701, the Whig dominated Parliament, fearing that James II’s son James Edward could become king, passed the Act of Settlement that made the next monarch German Protestant Electress Sophia of Hanover, a granddaughter of James I. Anne outlived Sophia by 6 weeks. So, on 1 August 1714, the next monarch was Sophia’s son, George. He could not speak English, and relied on translators for his entire reign. Since that time to the present, English monarchs have been from the so-called House of Hanover. During World War I, 1914–1918, the name was changed to House of Windsor to avoid German connotations.

In 1745, Highland Scots opposed to the 1707 union rallied behind Bonnie Prince Charles, grandson of James II, who would otherwise be King of Scotland. Within weeks, Charles gathered up to 8000 soldiers, completely surprising the English. His force was enough to march towards London, but hopelessly inadequate to effect concessions. The English defeated this force on 16 April 1746 at Battle of Culloden. For a few months afterwards, Charles was the target of a large manhunt. Flora Macdonald, age 24, helped him escape between islands in a rowboat while he was disguised as Flora’s maidservant. Ultimately, Charles got to safety in France. Flora was arrested, taken to London, and questioned about her involvement. She told the Prince of Wales that she would do the same for him had she found him in like distress. In the public’s perception, she was innocent and the only redeeming personality in the national tragedy. She cultivated that celebrity status.

Flora Macdonald
Painted by Allan Ramsay, 1749.

After Culloden, firearms were confiscated. Highland culture was curtailed by the Act of Proscription. From 1747 until 1781, it was unlawful to wear a kilt or play a bagpipe. One poor piper was executed after a judge accepted the argument that a bagpipe was a weapon. New laws and higher rents cleared Highlanders off their land. They were replaced with sheep, bitterly called "four-legged clansmen." Affected families were devastated. On the other hand, clearances resulted in better land management. It ended the centuries-old practice of denuding forests, an environmental disaster that remains evident today.

After Culloden, the British Army formed its famous Highland Regiments partly to relieve unemployment. The 42^nd Highland Regiment, also know as the Black Watch, attacked Fort Ticonderoga in 1758. It participated at Harlem Heights during the American Revolution in 1776. The 71^st Highland Regiment, also known as Fraser Highlanders, were under Lord Cornwallis’ command during the American Revolution. (Brander 1971) contains details.

Carolina Piedmont (1750–1770)

Large concentrations of Scotch-Irish and Germans settled in the Catawba River valley.

After 1750, new immigrants settled South Carolina Piedmont, especially near Waxhaws and Longs Canes, present-day Abbeville. By 1775, approximately 200,000 Scotch-Irish lived in Virginia or the Carolinas. There were an equal number of Germans. Together, these were approximately half the total populations.

During 1767, itenerant Anglican clergyman Charles Woodmason described backcountry Scotch-Irish as "a Sett of the most lowest vilest Crew breathing," and other extremely derogatory terms (Woodmason 1767). Bigoted attitudes like this, reinforced Scot-Irishmen’s perception of English establishment persecution.

In the 1770s, iron ore was discovered in a deposit that extended from present-day King’s Mountain to eastern Lincoln County. Surface mining extracted iron ore that was used to make tools, household goods, and munitions.

Seven Years’ War is known as French and Indian War in North America. Britain fought France and Spain. It began badly for Britain. On 8 July 1758, Britain lost 2000 soldiers in a failed attack on Fort Ticonderoga, New York. Prime Minister William Pitt formed a new government and began massive military spending. He partly justified policies as benefiting the world by spreading the ideals of British Liberty and constitutional government.

Prime Minister William Pitt
Painted by William Hoare, 1756.

Delaware Indians in Pennsylvania and Shawnee in Ohio retaliated against settler encroachment. Iroquois Indians aligned with Britain and attempted to strengthen their nation at the expense of other tribes.

In 1759, Britain war success exceeded all expectations. On 18 September, at Quebec, General James Wolfe drove French soldiers from Canada. Many other victories occurred around the world and the year 1759 became known as "annus mirabilis," year of miracles. Incidentally, Queen Elizabeth II may have been referring to 1759 when she made the comparison of 1992 being "annus horribilis."

In this hopeful time, George III, at age 23, became king when his grandfather George II died on 25 October 1760. Both he and his recently married Queen Charlotte were coronated on 22 September 1761.

King George III
Painted by Allan Ramsey.

War reached South Carolina in January 1760, when Cherokees, urged by the French, attacked backcountry settlements, killing and mutilating adults and scalping children. South Carolina House of Commons set bounties on Cherokee scalps. The 1763 Treaty of Augusta pushed the Cherokee boundary westward.

At war’s end in 1763, Spanish Florida became a British possession. In an attempt to resolve the Indian land problem, George III announced the Proclamation of 1763. It prohibited further settlement west of the Alleghenies.

Ironically, Britain’s success undermined its influence among North Americans. Absence of French and Spanish soldiers made North Americans less dependent on Britain’s military protection. Indians that aligned with France were marginalized. The younger generation who wanted to acquire large farms resented the restrictive Proclamation of 1763. Military experiences of young Americans, like George Washington, provided a cadre of trained officers. The war’s heavy debt forced Britain to search for ways to raise revenue by taxing colonists.

Large concentrations of Scotch-Irish settled in part of Anson Country that became Mecklenburg County. One community positioned itself on a hilltop ridge between two parallel creeks, later named Irwin and Little Sugar Creeks. The latter is named for Sugaree Indians. After 11 December 1762, when Mecklenburg County was formed, Thomas Polk promoted his community as the new county seat. A courthouse and prison was quickly constructed and the name Charlotte was selected to solicit favorable recognition from the colonial government. Princess Charlotte Sophia, from Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Germany, became King George III’s wife in 1761. Their recent coronation and youth made them popular. The name Charlotte was thought to be "pretty and euphonious."

Queen Charlotte, Age 17
The History of Vandalia, volume 3, plate after page 52, Thomas Nugent, London, 1766–1773.

On 22 May 1767, North Carolina colonial governor William Tryon passed through Charlotte on the way to negotiate a boundary treaty with Cherokee chief Jud’s Friend on the Tyger River in South Carolina (Davidson 1951:22).

On 7 November 1768, Charlotte was incorporated after Lord George August Selwyn sold 360 acres to trustees Abraham Alexander, Thomas Polk, and John Frohook. This property was divided into half-acre lots for homes. In August 1769, when colonial governor William Tryon visited Charlotte, the local segment of Great Wagon Road was named Tryon Street. The perpendicular Indian trading path was named Trade Street. The original log courthouse was at intersection of Tryon and Trade Streets. Its ground floor was a community market place. In 1774, a more permanent courthouse replaced it. In 1771, Queens College was constructed two blocks away at the southeas